Modern college students face intense academic and employment competition pressure. According to Fu et al. (2023), 45.28% of Chinese college students may be at risk of anxiety. Anxiety has become a serious issue that affects the academic performance, daily life, and mental well-being of college students. Participating in physical exercise not only promotes overall well-being through physiological movements and sports activities, but also enhances mental health. As such, the role of physical exercise in alleviating anxiety has been receiving increasing attention (Philippot et al., 2022; Stubbs et al., 2017; Yin et al., 2023). From a physiological perspective, physical exercise may be associated with anxiety due to the regulatory role of the serotonergic system (Illesca-Matus et al., 2023). Physical exercise promotes the release of neurotransmitters, such as endorphins, which, in turn, facilitate changes in brain structural temperament and have been found to possess antianxiety effects (Wegner et al., 2014). However, the impact of physical exercise on anxiety is not singular and requires analysis from multiple perspectives. Using a psychological perspective, we explored the association of social support and resilience in the link between physical exercise and anxiety. This is crucial for a deeper theoretical understanding of the internal mechanisms of anxiety among college students. Further, from a practical standpoint, our research could offer new perspectives and strategies for the prevention and intervention of anxiety in this demographic.
Anxiety is an emotion that is triggered by an individual’s self-protection mechanism against future uncertainty (Rosnow, 1991). According to the model of emotional disorder (Beck, 1979), individuals are more prone to experiencing anxiety when they focus excessively on potential threats and unsafe situations. Stubbs et al. (2017) found that anxiety rates increase when the level of physical exercise is low. Physical exercise can promote the regulation of the body’s internal environment by the neuroendocrine system, thereby maintaining emotional stability (Kandola et al., 2019). Cisler et al. (2010) also pointed out that emotional stability can effectively alleviate anxiety. Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1: Physical exercise will have a negative impact on anxiety among college students.
Social support refers to various forms of support obtained through interacting and establishing relationships with others (Barrera, 1986). Physical exercise, as a social activity and interpersonal interaction (Lu, 2001), provides individuals with opportunities to establish connections with others and expand their social networks during the exercise process. The expansion of social networks can facilitate individuals acquiring more information, resources, and emotional support, thereby enhancing the level of social support (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Social support has been positively linked to physical exercise (Wu et al., 2008). At the same time, social support can enhance an individual’s social adaptability, protecting them from the detrimental effects of adverse environments (Malecki & Demary, 2002), reducing their perception of potential threats and unsafe situations, and providing emotional support to make college students feel cared for and understood, thus alleviating the occurrence of anxiety (Cohen, 1988). Social support has been empirically shown to have a negative correlation with anxiety (Xing et al., 2016). Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2: Social support will moderate the link between physical exercise and anxiety among college students.
Resilience is an individual’s psychological adaptation ability when facing life stress, setbacks, and adversities (Ong et al., 2006). It denotes the capacity of an individual to maintain a stable mindset when facing challenges and difficulties, allowing them to gradually adapt to new circumstances. Physical exercise can enhance emotional and behavioral regulation by strengthening brain regions and neural circuits, thereby enhancing resilience (Belcher et al., 2021). It can also enhance resilience through the pathway of honing one’s willpower (Hu, 2019). The enhancement of resilience through physical exercise has been demonstrated in previous research (see, e.g., L. Wang et al., 2022). At the same time, resilience can be seen as a manifestation of emotional stability, as individuals with high resilience possess qualities such as optimism, perseverance, and self-improvement (Xu et al., 2016), enabling them to better adjust themselves during emotional fluctuations (Liu et al., 2023) and actively cope with negative emotions (e.g., anxiety) during unexpected events (Herberg & Torgersen, 2021). In addition, resilience has been empirically shown to be negatively correlated with anxiety (Ren et al., 2018). Therefore, we proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3: Resilience will play a mediating role between physical exercise and anxiety among college students.
The main effects model of social support advances that social support facilitates an individual’s positive psychological well-being and behavior, regardless of whether they are in negative circumstances, as social support is considered an environmental system factor (Kruglanski & Higgins, 2013). At the same time, the dynamic model of resilience posits that social support can effectively meet the psychological needs of adolescents, thereby facilitating the natural development of resilience (Li & Zhang, 2006). Both subjective emotional support and objective social support can enhance an individual’s resilience (Thoits, 1982). Therefore, social support and resilience are synergistic, and we proposed the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 4: Social support and resilience will mediate the association between physical exercise and anxiety among college students.
We constructed a chain mediation model to test our hypotheses (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework
Method
Participants and Procedure
This study selected 400 students from higher education institutions located in Guangdong and Hunan Provinces, China, as participants. We received 325 surveys, for a recovery rate of 81.25%. The sample consisted of 165 men (55.77%) and 160 women (49.23%). There were 77 students in their first year of study (23.69%), 84 students in their second year (25.85%), 85 students in their third year (26.15%), and 79 students in their fourth year (24.31%).
We created an online questionnaire using the Wenjuanxing online platform (www.wjx.cn) and sent a link to the participants. Students voluntarily joined the survey after being informed of the aims of the research and signing an informed consent form, without receiving any compensation. This study was approved by the Guangzhou Sports University Ethics Committee (2023LCLL-63).
Measures
Physical Activity Readiness Scale
Hashimoto (1990) developed the Physical Activity Readiness Scale and Liang (1994) revised it, demonstrating high reliability and validity. The scale quantifies exercise level with three dimensions, each containing one item: “How intense is your physical exercise?” (exercise intensity) is scored on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (mild exercise) to 5 (high-intensity, sustained exercise that causes heavy breathing and sweating), “How long will you physically exercise at that level of intensity?” (exercise duration) is scored on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (less than 10 minutes) to 4 (60 minutes or more), and “How many times per month do you perform the above physical exercise?” (exercise frequency) is scored on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (one a month) to 5 (approximately once a day). A higher score indicates higher exercise intensity, frequency, and longer duration. The calculation formula for physical exercise level is exercise duration × exercise intensity × exercise frequency. The scale ranges from 0 to 100, with 0 being the lowest score. In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .71, indicating the measure was reliable.
Self-Rating Anxiety Scale
We used Z. Wang and Chi’s (1984) updated version of the Self-Rating Anxiety Scale, which was originally developed by Zung (1971). The scale consists of 15 positively-scored items (e.g., “I feel scared for no reason”) and five negatively-scored items (e.g., “I find it easy to breathe in and out”). Items are rated on a 4-point Likert scale in which the individual scores of the 20 items are summed and multiplied by 1.25 to take the whole number portion, which is the standard score. A higher standard score indicates higher anxiety (Z. Wang & Chi, 1984). This scale has been found to effectively reflect the subjective experiences of anxiety tendencies in college students and has high reliability (D.-Y. Wang & Dai, 2016). In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .86, indicating the measure was reliable.
Social Support Rating Scale
We used the revised version of the Social Support Rating Scale (Xiao, 1994), which consists of 10 items spread over three dimensions: subjective support (three items, e.g., “How many friends do you have who can provide support and assistance?”), objective support (four items, e.g., “From whom have you received comfort and care when facing emergencies?”), and utilization of support (three items, e.g., “How do you express your troubles when you encounter them?”). Higher scores indicate higher levels of social support received. The scale has demonstrated good reliability and is suitable for research among the Chinese population (Liu et al., 2008). In this study Cronbach’s alpha was .76, indicating the scale was reliable.
Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale
The Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (Connor & Davidson, 2003) was translated and revised by Yu and Zhang (2007). It consists of 25 items divided across three dimensions: tenacity (13 items, e.g., “I like challenges”), strength (eight items, e.g., “I am able to adapt to change”), and optimism (four items, e.g., “I can deal with whatever comes”). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all like this) to 4 (almost always like this). Higher scores indicate higher resilience. Cronbach’s alpha was .95 in this study, indicating the measure was reliable.
Data Analysis
We conducted a Pearson correlation analysis using SPSS 26.0 and the PROCESS macro, as well as a mediation effects test. The questionnaire was subjected to validated factor analysis using Amos 23.0.
Results
Common Method Bias Test
We used Harman’s single-factor test to check for common method bias. The results showed that the amount of variance explained by the first factor was 30.45%, which is less than the critical value of 40%. Using Amos 23.0 and loading all items onto a common factor showed a poor model fit, χ2/df = 7.82, comparative fit index = .56, Tucker–Lewis index = .54, incremental fit index = .56, root-mean-square error of approximation = .09, standardized root-mean-square residual = .10. Therefore, this study did not have a serious issue of common method bias.
Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis
As shown in Table 1, the correlation coefficients of physical exercise, social support, resilience, and anxiety were statistically significant. The correlation analysis showed that physical exercise was positively correlated with social support and resilience, and negative correlated with anxiety.
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlation Coefficients for Study Variables
Note. N = 325.
** p < .01.
Mediation Effects Analysis
We performed a bootstrapping analysis of the mediation effects using Model 6 of the PROCESS macro for SPSS (Hayes & Rockwood, 2017). The results are shown in Table 2. First, physical exercise directly and negatively affected anxiety, thus supporting Hypothesis 1. After including the mediating variables, physical exercise was still directly and negatively associated with anxiety, and physical exercise was positively associated with both social support and resilience. Social support was positively associated with resilience and negatively associated with anxiety. Resilience was negatively associated with anxiety.
Table 2. Analysis of Regression Relationships Between Variables
Note. CI = confidence interval; LL = lower level; UL = upper limit.
Analysis of the mediation effect (see Table 3, Figure 2) showed that physical exercise can directly affect anxiety, with a direct effect value of −0.37, accounting for 75.72% of the total effect (−0.49). Social support and resilience played a chain mediating role between physical exercise and anxiety, with a total indirect effect of −0.12, accounting for 24.28% of the total effect (−0.49). Specifically, the mediation effect consisted of three pathways: the single mediation pathway of social support (indirect effect 1), the single mediation pathway of resilience (indirect effect 2), and the chain mediation pathway of social support and resilience (indirect effect 3). The indirect effect value of the pathway formed by physical exercise → social support → anxiety was −0.03. The indirect effect value of the pathway formed by physical exercise → resilience → anxiety was −0.08. The indirect effect value of the pathway formed by physical exercise → social support → resilience → anxiety was −0.01. The 95% confidence intervals of the above indirect effects did not include 0, indicating that all three indirect effects reached significance. Therefore, Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4 were supported.
Table 3. Analysis of the Mediating Effect of Physical Exercise on Anxiety
Note. CI = confidence interval; LL = lower level; UL = upper limit.
Figure 2. Chain Mediation Diagram of Physical Exercise and Anxiety
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
Discussion
Physical Exercise and Anxiety
We found a significant direct effect of physical exercise on anxiety, thus supporting Hypothesis 1. Physical exercise provided a distraction that allowed individuals to focus their attention on movement and away from anxiety triggers, thus reducing tension or agitation, regulating individuals’ mood through physical exercise, and improving emotional stability, which helped to alleviate anxiety. Specifically, we believe the impact of physical exercise on anxiety is related to the type, frequency, and intensity of the exercise. Li and Dai (2022) have also found that exercises of different intensities have a certain effect in reducing anxiety, with high-intensity exercise having better intervention effects than moderate- or low-intensity exercise, and moderate-intensity exercise having better effects than low-intensity exercise. Therefore, we found physical exercise plays a crucial role in the reduction of college students’ anxiety, and physical exercise has a significant negative effect on college students’ anxiety.
Mediating Effect of Social Support
The results of this study indicate that social support plays a partial mediating role in the relationship between physical exercise and anxiety, thus supporting Hypothesis 2. This is consistent with previous research indicating there is a positive correlation between physical exercise and social support (Wu et al., 2008), and a negative correlation between social support and anxiety (Xing et al., 2016). We found physical exercise provides college students with opportunities for social interaction, enabling them to establish connections with classmates, coaches, and other individuals through participating in physical activities, thus expanding their social networks. Moreover, Zhang (2014) found engaging in team sports and group exercise activities enhances interpersonal communication skills more effectively than engaging in individual exercise. Our results further support the social support buffer model (Thoits, 1982), which posits that the impact of adverse events on anxiety among university students is mitigated by social support. The level of perceived and accessible social support that individuals experience is negatively correlated with their perceived anxiety when encountering stressful situations and events (Xing et al., 2016), and the emotional comfort provided by social support helps college students to cope better with the state of anxiety. Therefore, college students can reduce their anxiety levels by obtaining more social support through physical exercise.
Mediating Effect of Resilience
Our results show that resilience plays a partial mediating role between physical exercise and anxiety, thus validating Hypothesis 3 and being consistent with previous research findings (Ren et al., 2018; L. Wang et al., 2022). First, through physical exercise, individuals can set fitness goals, challenge their physical limits, and gradually achieve these goals, and this experience of self-challenge contributes to the improvement of resilience (Maddi, 2002). Research has shown that with a gradual increase in exercise intensity and duration, college students with higher resilience demonstrate stronger abilities in regulating unpleasantness and anxiety, as well as faster recovery rates (e.g., S. Wang & Chen, 2017). Second, resilience can be transferred to daily learning and life, assisting college students in actively coping with various challenges and maintaining a stable mindset. This is consistent with the theory of tempering effect (Rutter, 2012): In the face of trauma or adversity, the ability to effectively manage stressors, reduce sensitivity to negative experiences, and exhibit lower levels of anxiety is attributed to having a high level of resilience. Therefore, college students can enhance their resilience and subsequently reduce their anxiety levels through physical exercise.
Chain Mediating Effect of Social Support and Resilience
We further found that social support and resilience played a chain mediating role between physical exercise and anxiety, thus supporting Hypothesis 4. This is consistent with existing research findings showing that social support can enhance resilience (e.g., Fan et al., 2018), and that the coping ability of college students toward stressful events is influenced by their level of psychological resilience when facing crises (Xi et al., 2015). This is also consistent with the finding that the impact of stressful events on individuals’ resilience can be buffered by external social support (Fan et al., 2018). In addition, social support can provide substantial assistance to college students, alleviating their burden when facing challenges and allowing them to concentrate their energy and resources on addressing other psychological challenges (Southwick et al., 2014), helping college students to better cope with adversity and, in turn, increase their resilience.
Practical Implications
The results of this study will contribute to guiding interventions aimed at improving anxiety among college students. Unlike other studies that aimed to intervene in anxiety using medication or other medical devices, this study advocates for direct intervention in anxiety among college students through physical exercise. It also recommends indirect intervention through enhancing social support and resilience, thereby promoting the mental health growth of college students.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
First, we adopted a cross-sectional research design, which does not allow for causal inferences to be drawn between variables. Second, this study employed a self-report method for data collection, which is susceptible to subjective factors from the participants. Additionally, this study examined only the mediating effect of social support and resilience in the relationship between physical exercise and anxiety. Other potential mediating variables, such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, and sleep quality, require further investigation.
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Cohen, S. (1988). Psychosocial models of the role of social support in the etiology of physical disease. Health Psychology, 7(3), 269–297.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310–357.
Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD‐RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18(2), 76–82.
Fan, H., Zhu, Z., Miao, L., Liu, S., & Zhang, L. (2018). Impact of parents’ marital conflict on adolescent depressive symptoms: A moderated mediation model [In Chinese]. Psychological Development and Education, 34(4), 481–488.
Fu, X., Zhang, K., Chen, X., & Chen, Z. (2023). Report on national mental health development in China (2021–2022) [In Chinese]. Social Science Literature Publishing House.
Hashimoto, K. (1990). Stress, exercise and quality of life proceedings. Beijing Asian Games: A Scientific Congress.
Hayes, A. F., & Rockwood, N. J. (2017). Regression-based statistical mediation and moderation analysis in clinical research: Observations, recommendations, and implementation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 98, 39–57.
Herberg, M., & Torgersen, G.-E. (2021). Resilience competence face framework for the unforeseen: Relations, emotions and cognition. A qualitative study. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 669904.
Hu, Q. (2019). The effect of increased intensity of physical exercises on mental health and resilience among college students [In Chinese]. Chinese Journal of School Health, 40(1), 83–85.
Illesca-Matus, R., Ardiles, N. M., Munoz, F., & Moya, P. R. (2023). Implications of physical exercise on episodic memory and anxiety: The role of the serotonergic system. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(14), Article 11372.
Kandola, A., Ashdown-Franks, G., Hendrikse, J., Sabiston, C. M., & Stubbs, B. (2019). Physical activity and depression: Towards understanding the antidepressant mechanisms of physical activity. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 107, 525–539.
Kruglanski, A. W., & Higgins, E. T. (2013). Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Li, H., & Dai, J. (2022). A meta-analysis of the influence of different exercises on anxiety of Chinese college students [In Chinese]. Bulletin of Sport Science & Technology, 30(2), 193–197.
Li, H. L., & Zhang, W. X. (2006). Review of the studies on psychological resilience [In Chinese]. Journal of Shandong Teacher’s University: Humanities and Social Sciences, 51(3), 149–152.
Liang, D. (1994). Stress levels of students in higher education and their relationship with physical exercise [In Chinese]. Chinese Mental Health Journal, 8(1), 5–6.
Liu, J., Li, F. Y., & Lian, Y. (2008). Investigation of reliability and validity of the Social Support Scale [In Chinese]. Journal of Xinjiang Medical University, 31(1), 1–3.
Liu, J., Zhang, Z., Jin, Z., & Wan, Y. (2023). Association among insomnia, resilience and negative emotions in freshman students [In Chinese]. Chinese Journal of School Health, 44(8), 1211–1215.
Lu, F. (2001). Nature of sports and sociological characterization [In Chinese]. Journal of Chengdu Physical Education Institute, 27(6), 10–13.
Maddi, S. R. (2002). The story of hardiness: Twenty years of theorizing, research, and practice. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 54(3), 173–185.
Malecki, C. K., & Demary, M. K. (2002). Measuring perceived social support: Development of the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale (CASSS). Psychology in the Schools, 39(1), 1–18.
Ong, A. D., Bergeman, C. S., Bisconti, T. L., & Wallace, K. A. (2006). Psychological resilience, positive emotions, and successful adaptation to stress in later life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 730–749.
Philippot, A., Dubois, V., Lambrechts, K., Grogna, D., Robert, A., Jonckheer, U., ... De Volder, A. G. (2022). Impact of physical exercise on depression and anxiety in adolescent inpatients: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Affective Disorders, 301, 145–153.
Ren, Y., Zhu, S., Zhou, S., & Wang, S. (2018). Relationship between resilience, anxiety level and craving of male drug addicts [In Chinese]. Chinese Journal of Drug Dependence, 27(3), 211–214.
Rosnow, R. L. (1991). Inside rumor: A personal journey. American Psychologist, 46(5), 484–496.
Rutter, M. (2012). Resilience as a dynamic concept. Development and Psychopathology, 24(2), 335–344.
Southwick, S. M., Bonanno, G. A., Masten, A. S., Panter-Brick, C., & Yehuda, R. (2014). Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: Interdisciplinary perspectives. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1), Article 25338.
Stubbs, B., Koyanagi, A., Hallgren, M., Firth, J., Richards, J., Schuch, F., … Vancampfort, D. (2017). Physical activity and anxiety: A perspective from the World Health Survey. Journal of Affective Disorders, 208, 545–552.
Stubbs, B., Vancampfort, D., Rosenbaum, S., Firth, J., Cosco, T., Veronese, N., … Schuch, F. B. (2017). An examination of the anxiolytic effects of exercise for people with anxiety and stress-related disorders: A meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 249, 102–108.
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