The U.S. Census Bureau estimated that retail e-commerce sales in the United States for the fourth quarter of 2013 totaled over US$69 billion, which was about 6% of all retail sales in that period (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014). Findings reported in much empirical research support several advantages to shopping online in comparison to shopping offline (e.g., Kaufman-Scarborough & Lindquist, 2002). The Internet provides convenient shopping tools to find specific products or services, such as price comparison and product search engines. The type of product, the shopper’s perception about the price, and the nature of the consumer can affect the likelihood and frequency of online shopping (Chiang & Dholakia, 2003). The increase of e-sales has negative as well as positive implications for consumption. For example, even though we could not find empirical evidence of the relationship between e-commerce and compulsive buying, there are some reports in which it is suggested that e-commerce has increased the levels of compulsive buying, and researchers have also identified characteristics of e-commerce, such as easy accessibility, unending inventory, and attractive online displays, that increase compulsive buying (Duroy, Gorse, & Lejoyeux, 2014; Kukar-Kinney, Ridgway, & Monroe, 2009). Compulsive buying in an online environment is an important area of study because this behavior can damage both the individual and society (Sharma, Sivakumaran, & Marshall, 2010). Although consumers may have short-term positive feelings after a compulsive purchase, in the long run, having made the purchase can create significant negative consequences for the individual, such as bankruptcy, disrupting normal life (Sneath, Lacey, & Kennett-Hensel, 2009).

The primary goal of the current research was to contribute to the literature about online consumer behavior by examining the relationship between Internet addiction and compulsive buying in both offline and online settings. In addition, we examined the role of consumers’ self-esteem in both their offline behavior and in terms of compulsive e-buying tendencies. Our findings in this study will contribute to the extant literature on online shopping by further elaborating on the relationships among consumers’ self-esteem, Internet addiction, and compulsive buying.

Review of Literature

Compulsive E-Buying

According to findings in previous research, compulsive e-buying refers to compulsive online buying (Lee & Park, 2008). However there are few studies involving compulsive e-buying. There is anecdotal evidence of compulsive online buying in reports of eBay addicts (Morrison, 1999), and in a case study of a compulsive online buyer (Greenfield, 1999). Even though we could not find any direct empirical evidence about the relationship between e-commerce and compulsive online buying, there are some reports in which the findings suggest that e-commerce has increased compulsive e-buying (Eastin, 2002). The characteristics of e-commerce, including easy accessibility, unending inventory, and attractive online displays, are likely to increase the intention to buy compulsively online (Sharma et al., 2010). E-commerce can be a convenient channel for compulsive buyers because the Internet gives easy access to isolated online shopping environments (Alba et al., 1997) where the consumer can escape from social influences. In this study we operationalized compulsive e-buying as chronic, repetitive, and excessive buying, with online compulsive tendencies viewed as being a result of negative events or feelings. Thus, we proposed a positive relationship between compulsive buying behavior both offline and online.
Hypothesis 1: A compulsive offline shopper is likely to be a compulsive online shopper.

The Interplay Among Self-Esteem, Internet Addiction, and Compulsive Buying

Internet addiction falls within a subset of abnormal behaviors, and findings reported in research show that this behavior is on the rise (Johansson & Götestam, 2004). Internet addiction occurs when people are unable to control their impulses through logic or self-control (Benson, 2000). Addiction is typically coupled with short-term gratification when the behavior occurs, followed by unwanted delayed consequences (Marlatt, Baer, Donovan, & Kivlahan, 1988). Although societal attention may focus more on high-profile addictions, such as drug and alcohol abuse, Internet addiction does have far-reaching effects, which include varying degrees of compulsive e-buying that, in its worst form, could lead to the individual’s financial ruin and the demise of his or her family life (O’Guinn & Faber, 1989). Addiction may be characterized as an out-of-control state. However, this characterization does not encompass the totality of the addictive experience (Watson, 1999). More specifically, addiction can be viewed as a loss of control, in which the desire is too strong for the person to resist. It is a predicament of lack of self-control that interferes with everyday life (Müller, Glaesmer, Brähler, Woelfling, & Beutel, 2013).

One representative characteristic that makes the Internet attractive is anonymity (Griffiths, 1997; Young & Rogers, 2009). Internet users can easily interact with others with either genuine or fake profiles, perhaps leading to user confusion between what is reality and what is the virtual world (Young, 2009). According to Müller et al. (2013), among those people in Germany who have a tendency toward Internet addiction, many use online gambling and gaming sites, chat rooms and social networking sites, and pornography sites.

Affective states significantly influence how consumers make choices online (Pahnila & Warsta, 2010). The most commonly noted personality characteristic related to compulsive buying is the level of their self-esteem (DeSarbo & Edwards, 1996), defined as people’s self-evaluation and the extent to which they believe themselves to be worthwhile (Coopersmith, 1990). People whose self-esteem is low are likely to evaluate themselves in a negative way and to focus on others’ assessment, often mistrusting any positive opinions (Swann, 1996). In addiction theories, people with certain personality characteristics are viewed as being more prone than others are to becoming addicted to a substance or behavior. Addictive behaviors are linked to lower levels of self-esteem, more serious depression and greater anxiety (Hirschman, 1992). Self-esteem has been supported as the most prominent personality trait linked to addictive behavior by several researchers.

Low self-esteem has consistently been linked with, and found to increase, compulsive buying in literature on consumer behavior (Elliott, 1994; Faber et al., 1995; Hirschman, 1992; Roberts 1998). Compulsive buying may be an attempt by the individual to block these feelings temporarily, or to overcome them, but compulsive buying leads to feelings of fear and guilt because of the individual’s inability to control his or her purchasing behavior (DeSarbo & Edwards, 1996; Robins, Tracy, Trzesniewski, Potter, & Gosling, 2001). Black, Repertinger, Gaffney, and Gabel (1998), found that compulsive buyers were more likely than control groups were to suffer from psychiatric disorders. Moreover, it has also been found that compulsive buyers have more negative mood states compared to other consumers before buying products, experience more instances of switching between extreme positive and negative mood states, and use shopping to help alleviate negative mood states (Faber & Christenson, 1996).

In addition to being used as a way to cope with stress, negative emotions, and everyday pressures, compulsive buying is often coupled with a less than desirable sense of self-worth (Faber, O’Guinn, & Krych, 1987). When Young (2009) conducted an exploratory study to gain a better understanding of Internet addiction and its impact on consumers’ lives, the results showed that as well as Internet addiction being a problem in and of itself, it also created moderate to severe problems within academic, relationship, financial, occupational, and physical areas of the lives of the consumers. One finding that interested us was that the authors reported that for the study participants, the real draw to the Internet was the interactive nature of certain websites. People were addicted to the fulfilment of social needs that were met by participating in chat rooms and conversing with electronic friends or acquaintances. Real-life relationships were pushed aside and large sums of money were being spent on monthly Internet fees and subscriptions to keep e-relationships alive. Consumers were addicted to fulfilling their emotional self-esteem needs through the Internet. Based on the findings from these studies, the following was hypothesized:
Hypothesis 2: Consumers whose self-esteem is low are more likely to be addicted to the Internet than are consumers whose self-esteem is high.

Although it has been found that self-esteem is significant, it should also be regarded as a strong influencer. In fact, compulsive buying fulfils interpersonal self-esteem needs more than it fulfils the need to possess objects (O’Guinn & Faber, 1989). Therefore, the following was hypothesized:
Hypothesis 3: Consumers whose self-esteem is low are more likely to participate in compulsive offline buying than are consumers whose self-esteem is high, assuming that there is a negative relationship between self-esteem and compulsive offline buying.

In the light of O’Guinn and Faber’s (1989) contention that compulsive consumption is actually an addiction that fills an interpersonal self-esteem need, it follows that compulsive online buying may not be affected by low self-esteem, because shopping online does not provide the same interpersonal interaction that is derived when shopping in the traditional way in a bricks-and-mortar store. Buying on the Internet is typically a solitary act, performed without contact with other shoppers. However, as an addictive behavior, compulsive online buying could still be impacted by self-esteem level, although we did not expect the impact to be as great compared with compulsive offline buying.
Hypothesis 4: Consumers whose self-esteem is low are more likely to be compulsive buyers online than are consumers whose self-esteem is high, assuming that there is a negative relationship between self-esteem and compulsive online buying.)

Faber, Christenson, de Zwaan, and Mitchell (1995) reported on the tendency toward comorbidity of individuals displaying addictive behavior, and emphasized that addictive behaviors should not be examined in isolation. In other words, people with one type of addiction are likely to have others. As such, we expected that both Internet addiction and compulsive offline buying would lead to compulsive online buying. Because the terms “addiction” and “compulsion” are so readily and casually interchanged by some researchers, it seems possible that the two behaviors exist simultaneously (Watson, 1999). The similar nature of Internet addiction and compulsive e-buying lends support to the contention that the two are related. Among all potential activities available online, including communication (e.g., email, chat rooms), research, viewing informational websites, and shopping, it seemed to us almost intuitive that Internet addiction would breed compulsive e-buying. Pahnila and Warsta (2010) documented how habit performs a crucial role in online shopping behaviors. Similarly, compulsive online buying is actually only a change in the vehicle for shopping, not a change in behavior. The expected effects were hypothesized as follows:
Hypothesis 5: Consumers who are addicted to the Internet are more likely than other people are to be compulsive online shoppers.

Method

Data Collection and Sample Characteristics

We collected data through an online survey of consumers. A sample of 1,000 people was randomly drawn from an online customer panel maintained by a national market research firm. We received 278 responses, of which 257 were usable (r = 27.8%). Demographic variables were collected. The average income of the sample ranged between US$40,000 and US$49,000 and the average age was 41.2 years old, with a range from 18 to 82 years old. In terms of education level, 18% of the respondents were high school graduates, 36.5% held a bachelor’s degree, and 14.7% held an academic qualification higher than a master’s degree. The majority of the respondents (67.5%) were women.

Item Development and Reliability Testing

Internal reliability levels were measured using Cronbach’s alpha values for each individual scale. All multiple-item measures included in the study demonstrated acceptable reliability, as measured by coefficient alphas ranging from .84 to .92, confirming the internal consistency and reliability of the scales. Scale reliabilities, along with mean and standard deviation for each scale item, are reported in Table 1.

Measures

Scales were used to measure self-esteem, Internet addiction, and compulsive offline and online buying behavior. We used Rosenberg’s (1979) 10-item Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) as it is a well-accepted method for measuring self-esteem. Faber and O’Guinn’s (1992) scale was used to assess compulsive offline buying and we adapted the items to measure compulsive online buying. The Internet Addiction Test (IAT2; Widyanto & McMurran, 2004) was adopted for measurement of Internet addiction. The IAT2 is a 20-item self-report online survey that is rated using a 5-point Likert scale and which has systematically shown proven high validity and reliability. Respondents make an assessment of how much their Internet use influences their daily life, social life, productivity, sleeping patterns, and feelings. As we included measures in our research that comprised a large set of items—such as the IAT2 with 20 items or the RSES with 10 items—we put the items for all four measurements through an item purification process following Churchill’s recommendations (1979), with an evaluation by calculating corrected item-to-total correlations and pairwise correlations between the items.

Results

We performed exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis (EFA and CFA). The results of EFA indicated that the values obtained from the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy were greater than .7 (from .73 to .87). Then, we used structural equation modelling (SEM) to explore the proposed relationships among variables simultaneously, as the concurrent estimation of all paths in SEM makes it a particularly desirable analysis method. We used AMOS to analyze the measurement and structural models statistically. The measurement model was shown to fit the data well.

In Table 3 the results are presented of the structural equation model with fit indices. In Hypothesis 2 we predicted a negative relationship between self-esteem and Internet addiction. The data support this hypothesis (-.35; p < .05). Lower levels of self-esteem were linked with higher levels of Internet addiction. For the third hypothesis we tested the relationship between self-esteem and compulsive offline buying. Lower levels of self-esteem were also found to be linked with higher levels of compulsive offline buying (-.11; p < .10). Therefore, Hypothesis 3 was supported. We had predicted that the link between self-esteem and compulsive online shopping would be negative, yet this link would be of a lesser magnitude compared to the relationship between self-esteem and compulsive offline buying. Results showed that the relationship was actually positive (.14; p < .05); therefore, Hypothesis 4 was not supported. In Hypotheses 5 and 1 we proposed a positive relationship of Internet addiction with compulsive offline buying and a positive relationship of both these variables with compulsive online buying. The data supported both hypotheses (.44, .70; p < .05).

Discussion

Four out of the five hypotheses we had proposed were supported. The results showed that the respondents’ self-esteem was significantly and negatively related to their compulsive offline buying and to Internet addiction. This confirms O’Guinn and Faber’s (1989) findings that self-esteem is a major psychological variable impacting compulsive behavior, which goes beyond the simple need for a consumer to own or use things, and this finding is also consistent with that of other research (Lejoyeux & Weinstein, 2010). Addiction is much more than that—it encompasses an individual’s need for interpersonal connection, which has also been proposed in a previous study (Young, 2009). However, in our study the results showed that self-esteem was positively related to compulsive online buying. As reported in previous studies (Joinson, 1999), in online environments, respondents reported experiencing less social anxiety and social desirability and higher self-esteem when they were anonymous than they were not anonymous. Another possible explanation for our results is the lack of interpersonal communication that takes place while the consumer is purchasing products or services online. The individual’s high self-esteem needs are not being met through online shopping.

The idea of comorbidity of compulsive buying (Faber et al., 1995) was confirmed by our results in this study. The addictive behaviors of our respondent group seemed to be linked with one another. Both compulsive offline buying and Internet addiction had a strong positive relationship with compulsive online buying. Either compulsive online buying occurs as a switch from one channel (offline) to another (online), or a switch from one overarching addiction to a more specific addiction tendency (compulsive online buying). This is a relatively understudied phenomenon that deserves more empirical attention. The finding that addictive and compulsive behaviors are co-occurring is especially important because of the combined detrimental effects these behaviors may have on consumers’ lives. Although there is a conceptual distinction between addiction and compulsion, our findings in this study have demonstrated that there is a relationship between Internet addiction and e-buying compulsion. It is difficult to untangle the slight differences between these two constructs, although they remain separate.

We believe that what is most important here is the emphasis by Shoham and Brenčič (2003) on the need to gain a better understanding of consumer behavior phenomena that are viewed as negative. As such, the study of compulsive buying behavior—both offline and online—can shed light on the dynamics of negative consumer behaviors, their relationship with positive consumption behaviors, and how these two types of behaviors are related. The use of compulsive buying to alleviate underlying negative mood states (Vogt, Hunger, Türpe, Pietrowsky, & Gerlach, 2014) is concerning, especially at a societal level. The focus in treatment programs should be on the core problem and not on the resulting behaviors (e.g., compulsive buying). In spite of the dramatic growth of the Internet and Internet sales, it is difficult to find studies in which the focus is on online retail settings and compulsive shoppers. Online retail settings may facilitate compulsive shopping problems because of convenience (Ridgway, Kukar-Kinney, & Monroe, 2008). Given the phenomenal growth of e-commerce sites and environments that are favorable to fostering compulsive buying, more research on compulsive buying is necessary.

Our findings in this research provide implications for public policy and marketing strategies. Researchers have suggested that there are compulsive online shoppers, indicating that the Internet may be responsible for aberrant consumer spending. We support the need for consumer education and counselling services. Policy makers can develop educational or counselling programs with the aim of influencing the purchasing behaviors of addictive consumers with low self-esteem. Thus, Internet addiction might be mitigated.

Limitations and Further Research

Although three negative behaviors were presented as an interconnected network in our study, there are other behaviors that could be explored in further research. The shift from Internet addiction to online shopping addiction begs the question of whether other specific online activities could promote addiction, such as addiction to chat rooms, forums, other specialized Internet applications, and, especially, addiction to Internet gambling. Similarly, other buying channels, such as catalogue shopping or home shopping networks, should be considered in regard to compulsion and addiction as well. This study has been an initial step to look specifically at the effects of one psychological variable (self-esteem) on one addictive behavior and two compulsive behaviors, and the relationship among them. In future studies, researchers should include additional shopping channels and additional targets of addiction or compulsive behaviors. In particular, the focus in future research should be on compulsive e-buying and how this fits into the existing framework of compulsive behaviors offline.

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Benson, A. L. (Ed.). (2000). I shop, therefore I am: Compulsive buying and the search for self. New York, NY: Jason Aronson.

Black, D. W., Repertinger, S., Gaffney, G. R., & Gabel, J. (1998). Family history with psychiatric comorbidity in persons with compulsive buying: Preliminary findings. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 960–963. http://doi.org/bf8v

Chiang, K.-P., & Dholakia, R. R. (2003). Factors driving consumer intention to shop online: An empirical investigation. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 13, 177–183. http://doi.org/ctkvjp

Churchill, G. A., Jr. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 16, 64–73. http://doi.org/dd8dpw

Coopersmith, S. (1990). Self-Esteem Inventory (8th printing). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

DeSarbo, W. S., & Edwards, E. A. (1996). Typologies of compulsive buying behavior: A constrained clusterwise regression approach. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 5, 231–262. http://doi.org/fvp5z4

Duroy, D., Gorse, P., & Lejoyeux, M. (2014). Characteristics of online compulsive buying in Parisian students. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 1827–1830. http://doi.org/bf8w

Eastin, M. S. (2002). Diffusion of e-commerce: An analysis of the adoption of four e-commerce activities. Telematics and Informatics, 19, 251–267. http://doi.org/bvfxdd

Elliott, R. (1994). Addictive consumption: Function and fragmentation in postmodernity. Journal of Consumer Policy, 17, 159–179. http://doi.org/bdz8xp

Faber, R. J., & Christenson, G. A. (1996). In the mood to buy: Differences in the mood states experienced by compulsive buyers and other consumers. Psychology & Marketing, 13, 803–819. http://doi.org/cfxfwn

Faber, R. J., Christenson, G. A., de Zwaan, M., & Mitchell, J. (1995). Two forms of compulsive consumption: Comorbidity of compulsive buying and binge eating. Journal of Consumer Research, 22, 296–304.

Faber, R. J., & O’Guinn, T. C. (1992). A clinical screener for compulsive buying. Journal of Consumer Research, 19, 459–469.

Faber, R. J., O’Guinn, T. C., & Krych, R. (1987). Compulsive consumption. Advances in Consumer Research, 14, 132–135.

Greenfield, D. N. (1999). Virtual addiction. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.

Griffiths, M. (1997). Psychology of computer use: XLHI. Some comments on ‘addictive use of the Internet’ by Young. Psychological Reports, 80, 81–82. http://doi.org/fg4kn5

Hirschman, E. C. (1992). The consciousness of addiction: Toward a general theory of compulsive consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 19, 155–179.

Johansson, A., & Götestam, K. G. (2004). Internet addiction: Characteristics of a questionnaire and prevalence in Norwegian youth (12–18 years). Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 45, 223–229. http://doi.org/ft6cpk

Joinson, A. (1999). Social desirability, anonymity, and Internet-based questionnaires. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31, 433–438. http://doi.org/cpzg83

Kaufman-Scarborough, C., & Lindquist, J. D. (2002). E-shopping in a multiple channel environment. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 19, 333–350. http://doi.org/cgjfh9

Kukar-Kinney, M., Ridgway, N. M., & Monroe, K. B. (2009). The relationship between consumers’ tendencies to buy compulsively and their motivations to shop and buy on the Internet. Journal of Retailing, 85, 298–307. http://doi.org/bdgb5g

Lee, Y. J., & Park, J. (2008). The mediating role of consumer conformity in e-compulsive buying. Advances in Consumer Research, 35, 387–392.

Lejoyeux, M., & Weinstein, A. (2010). Compulsive buying. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse: Encompassing All Addictive Disorders, 36, 248–253. http://doi.org/dzbxzd

Marlatt, G. A., Baer, J. S., Donovan, D. M., & Kivlahan, D. R. (1988). Addictive behaviors: Etiology and treatment. Annual Review of Psychology, 39, 223–252. http://doi.org/b78rgh

Morrison, S. M. (1999, September). Ebay addict. Harper’s Bazaar, pp. 223–225.

Müller, K. W., Glaesmer, H., Brähler, E., Woelfling, K., & Beutel, M. E. (2013). Prevalence of internet addiction in the general population: Results from a German population-based survey. Behaviour & Information Technology, 33, 757–766. http://doi.org/bf8x

O’Guinn, T. C., & Faber, R. J. (1989). Compulsive buying: A phenomenological exploration. Journal of Consumer Research, 16, 147–157.

Pahnila, S., & Warsta, J. (2010). Online shopping viewed from a habit and value perspective. Behaviour & Information Technology, 29, 621–632. http://doi.org/dbwgxk

Ridgway, N. M., Kukar-Kinney, M., & Monroe, K. B. (2008). An expanded conceptualization and a new measure of compulsive buying. Journal of Consumer Research, 35, 622–639. http://doi.org/bz9fqs

Roberts, J. A. (1998). Compulsive buying among college students: An investigation of its antecedents, consequences, and implications for public policy. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 32, 295–319. http://doi.org/cmsk76

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This paper was supported by Konkuk University in 2013.

Jungkun Park, School of Business, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimri-ro, Seongdonggu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea. Email: [email protected]