According to Chang (2002), in the past few years, Taiwanese consumers have begun enjoying wine when socializing with family and friends. Similarly, many Westerners drink wine on a daily basis and consider it the main beverage to accompany meals. However, from a cultural perspective, there has been minimal segmentation regarding the behavioral differences between Taiwanese wine tourists and their Western counterparts.

Wine tourism has been the focus in numerous studies. For example, Mitchell and Hall (2006) found in their review of the literature that the focus in the majority of the studies was on Australia, New Zealand, and North America, where wine tourism has significantly expanded. The results in these studies showed commonalities in wine tourists’ motivation for visiting, visit satisfaction, and visiting patterns, and similarities in tasting, purchasing, and consuming.

In Taiwan, researchers have focused on the lifestyles and service satisfaction of wine tourists (Chen, 2009) as well as their motivation, knowledge, and demographics (Li, 2004). Other researchers have examined the positive relationship between leisure experience and wine tourists’ behavior (Wang, 2009), and also the segmentation of tourists according to their vacation lifestyles (Chen & Shen, 2005). As Galloway, Mitchell, Getz, Crouch, and Ong (2008) observed, in analysis of wine tourists, socioeconomic variables and personality characteristics are commonly used for market segmentation.

In this study, we used two major cultural variables – values and lifestyle – to segment wine tourists and reveal important insights into their personality, expectations, and motivation. Individuals’ values are characterized by the personal beliefs and codes of conduct that guide their behavior. According to de Mooij (1998), values form the core of a culture and influence the perception of symbols and rituals. The term lifestyle is a relatively new concept that encompasses individuals’ behavior and reflects their personality characteristics. Plummer (1974) stated that lifestyle patterns combine demographics with psychological characteristics. Furthermore, lifestyle is an essential bridge between individuals and culture, which enables individuals to share stories about diversity and continuity of experience (Chaney, 2004).

Taiwanese and Western wine tourists behave differently because of their different cultural background, distinctive values, and individual beliefs. Understanding these differences can help determine the impact of Taiwanese culture on wine tourists’ visiting patterns.

Literature Review

Culture and Values

Culture plays a significant role in shaping human behavior. Gordon (2000) has described how people are conditioned by their gender, class, age, and the culture to which they belong, as well as by society and the opinions of people who surround and influence them. Chaney (2001) stated that cultural characteristics are how people identify both themselves and members of other social groups. Hofstede (2001) noted that values are invisible until they become evident in a person’s behavior, whereas culture manifests itself in visible elements such as symbols, heroes, and rituals. In addition, numerous attitudes and behaviors are based on values and, collectively, they characterize cultures or nations (Watson, Lysonski, Gillan, & Raymore, 2002).

The concept of values includes many senses, behaviors, and attitudes that can be expressed in different ways, and that influence individual and group behaviors, as well as guiding actions and decisions. For example, the List of Values (LOV; Kahle, Beatty, & Homer, 1986) that was developed to measure the individual values of a consumer, includes nine basic constructs: (a) sense of belonging, (b) fun and enjoyment in life, (c) warm relationships with others, (d) self-fulfillment, (e) being well-respected, (f) excitement, (g) security, (h) self-respect, and (i) sense of accomplishment.

Culture and Lifestyle

Antonides and Van Raaij (1998) and de Mooij (2004) discussed the role of lifestyle in culture, and defined lifestyle as a set of values, interests, opinions, and behavior of consumers. Lifestyle also includes values, attitudes, and behavioral elements that are often a reflection of the culture to which people belong (de Mooij, 2004), and it is considered a way of categorizing and expressing the way people live their lives (Chaney, 2001). Consumers are aware of cultural influences and make conscious lifestyle choices based on these influences. Lifestyle choices are reflexive, constituting the ways in which people develop, and are formed by an association of patterns which can also be categorized and adopted by others (Chaney, 2001).

Lifestyle is based on cognitive levels such as motives, attitudes, interests, opinions, and activities. It also helps to reveal many aspects of an individual’s life and influences how they deal with a wide range of problems (Wells, 1975; Wells & Tigert, 1971; Zins, 1998). Wind (1972) noted that a lifestyle can be measured by the individual’s role as a consumer and by his or her activities, interests, and opinions (AIO). As Plummer (1974) stated, lifestyle segmentation, in its focus on people instead of products, groups them into different lifestyle types according to their range of AIO. Furthermore, Zins applied psychographic concepts to establish eight lifestyle constructs: (1) hedonism, (2) work orientation, (3) leisure orientation, (4) creativity, (5) health and environmental orientation, (6) cocoon, (7) social orientation, and (8) egocentrism.

Bruwer, Li, and Reid (2002) observed that lifestyle is linked to values. In their study of the Australian domestic wine market, consumers were clustered into five groups: purposeful inconspicuous premium drinkers, ritual-oriented conspicuous wine enthusiasts, enjoyment-oriented social drinkers, fashion- or image-oriented drinkers, and basic wine drinkers. Bruwer et al. used the approach of Grunert, Brunsø, and Bisp (1997), who noted that it is through lifestyle that consumers link a product to their life values. In this study we used lifestyle (or psychographic) segmentation to predict consumers’ behavior and understand their consumption habits.

Segmentation

Market segmentation is a tool for researchers to classify groups of people into different categories. Psychographic segmentation is an effective way to segment markets (Urbonavičius & Kasnauskienė, 2005). According to Chen, Huang, and Cheng (2009), segmentation and typology construction has been used by tourism researchers to predict traveler behavior. Smith (1956) stated that market segmentation involves viewing a heterogeneous market as a number of smaller heterogeneous markets that differ from one another because of consumers’ product preferences. As Plummer (1974) stated, no population is homogeneous; thus, it is important to identify and distinguish differences among individuals. As a result, researchers have agreed that segmentation using psychographic variables such as motivation, lifestyle, activities, interests, opinions, values, and personality, can be useful for identifying differences among wine tourists (Galloway et al., 2008).

Numerous researchers (Bruwer et al., 2002; Spawton, 1991; Yuan, Cai, Morrison, & Linton, 2005) have focused on the wine industry in the Western world. However, because consumption in the growing Asian market is increasing and new tendencies in wine-drinking behavior are emerging, further studies on the organization and development of this wine industry need to be conducted. Therefore, our objectives in the present study were as follows: (a) to segment Taiwanese wine tourists using culture-related variables such as values and lifestyle, and also sociodemographic and psychographic variables to provide a detailed image of the tourists’ behavior, preferences, and habits; (b) to further illustrate and examine potential cultural differences among all segmented groups in this study; (c) to help winery owners to better understand the behavior of wine tourists and offer them appropriate service strategies related to the wine tourists’ attitudes, customs, values, and lifestyles; and (d) to provide winery owners with better marketing strategies focused on wine tourists’ needs.

Method

Participants

We used descriptive analysis to determine the characteristics of the respondents (women = 54.7%, men = 45.3%). The largest group was aged between 18 and 25 years (36.7%), with 23.8% aged between 36 and 45 years; with regard to marital status 52.9% were single, and 42.2% were married with children. Regarding education, education, 71.5% of the respondents held a bachelor’s degree, 15.7% had a master’s degree, and 12.8% had a high school diploma. The respondents comprised students (32.5%), those employed in private industries (28.0%), those employed by the military, government, or educational institutions (18.9%), housewives (6.8%), and others (12.8%). Because of the high number of students visiting wineries during the holiday period, 40.4% of the respondents earned NT$20,000 (US$660) or less per month, and 25.2% earned between NT$35,001(US$1,155) and NT$60,000 (US$1,980). The largest group of the respondents came from Western Taiwan (46.0%), followed by those from the south (26.2%) and the north (25.0%).

Research Design and Procedure

In 2010, the Council of Agriculture in Taiwan certified 12 wineries and within this group 20 awards were presented (Agriculture Food Agency, 2010). The 12 certified wineries were designated as high-quality leisure wineries in Taiwan from 2009–2012 (Council of Agriculture, 2012). Of these wineries, we chose Shu-Sheng and Shin-Yi as the subjects of this study because of their wide range of products.

The wine tourist survey we compiled for use in this study consists of five sections: a) wine-drinking values, assessed using the nine LOV values (Kahle, 1983); b) questions related to participants’ lifestyles, assessed using a lifestyle measurement scale (Zins, 1998), which includes eight dimensions with 23 items; c) questions related to the frequency of participants’ winery visits; d) participants’ consumption behavior; and e) demographic questions. For the first two sections, participants were asked to rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Overall, 509 survey forms were distributed during the Chinese New Year holiday period at the Shu-Sheng and Shin-Yi wineries and 428 valid responses were collected.

Results

Reliability and Validity Analysis

Validity and reliability tests were performed to ensure the stability of each dimension of the survey. Cronbach’s alpha for all the items was .793, which is well above the acceptable limit of .600 (Wu, 2009). In addition, the Cronbach’s alphas for values and lifestyle were .915 and .883, respectively.

Segmentation and Classification

Factor analysis was employed to reveal the structure and correlation of the constructs. The 23 lifestyle items were factor analyzed using principal components analysis with orthogonal varimax rotation. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was calculated and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was conducted to verify that the survey data were suitable for factor analysis. The KMO value was .88, above the limit of .50 for a satisfactory analysis, and Bartlett’s test result was significant at p < .001. Thus, the relationship between the variables and factor analysis was appropriate (Hinton, Brownlow, McMurray, & Cozens, 2004). The 23 lifestyle items were then grouped into five factors (explaining 56.8% of the variance) and all items with communalities below .40 were removed to maintain higher loadings on the factors. The five factors, with eigenvalues ranging from 1.155 to 6.909 were labeled as follows: Factor 1, Self; Factor 2, Leisure; Factor 3, Health; Factor 4, Justice; and Factor 5, Responsibility. The results of the factor analysis and each dimension that belongs to the corresponding LOV items are shown in Table 2.

The representative variables from Table 1 were further classified into clusters with a two-stage cluster analysis using Ward’s minimum variance method to merge the attributes into the appropriate number of clusters, after which the K-means method was employed to test their validity. The profile of the three groups of wine tourists, that is, conservative, hedonistic, and reward-seeking, are shown in Table 2.

Conservative Tourists

The conservative group was dominated by young, single female students in the process of completing, or already holding, a bachelor’s degree. Of those who worked, the majority earned NT$20,000 or less per month while the others earned between NT$35,001 and NT$60,000. They drank wine mainly because it was an important way to establish relationships, and they enjoyed the taste of wine and drinking wine with their everyday meals. Moreover, they enjoyed drinking fruit alcohol with friends, mostly in the evening. They consisted of both first-time visitors and those who stopped at the winery on the way to nearby attractions.

Hedonistic Tourists

The hedonistic group was dominated by single men aged between 18 and 25 years, who were still students and did not earn more than NTD$20,000 per month. They enjoyed the taste of wine and drank mainly on special occasions and during the evenings with friends. The majority consisted of first-time visitors on an incidental stop.

Reward-Seeking Tourists

The reward-seeking group was dominated by married women aged between 36 and 45 years, with children. They were employed in private industries and earned between NT$20,000 and NT$60,000 per month. They enjoyed drinking fruit alcohol on special occasions because they enjoyed the taste, and they drank wine once or twice a week with their meals. Furthermore, they enjoyed drinking with friends at the end of the day. The majority were first-time visitors on an incidental stop at the vineyard.

Discussion

Cultural Comparisons Between Characteristics of Tourists in Taiwan and Western Countries

Tourist characteristics. In this study, female tourists outnumbered male tourists. This is consistent with participants in previous Taiwanese (Liao, 2005; Yeh, 2008) and Western studies (Fraser, Alonso, & Cohen, 2008; Getz & Brown, 2006; Tassiopoulos, Nuntsu, & Haydam, 2004). In previous studies conducted in Taiwan it has been reported that the majority of Taiwanese winery visitors consist of young, single, educated women with low or moderate incomes (Liao, 2005; Tsao, 2005; Yeh, 2008).

Alonso (2009) found in his study of New Zealand’s wineries, that the average age of wine tourists was between 46 and 59 years. Several researchers (e.g., Bruwer & Li, 2007; Getz & Brown, 2006; Mitchell & Hall, 2006; Shor & Mansfeld, 2009) found that a typical winery visitor was a middle-aged, well-educated professional person with moderate to high income, showing that older wine consumers are more prevalent in the Western world.

Wine tourist behavior. In this study, Taiwanese tourists visited the wineries on their way to nearby attractions and rated the winery’s cultural characteristics as an important factor in their decision to visit. This result is similar to those obtained in other Taiwanese wine tourist studies, such as those by Wu and Cheng (2003), Hsiao (2005), and Yeh (2008). However, for our respondents leisure services and activities were of lesser importance. This can be explained by the fact that this study was conducted during the Chinese New Year holiday period when Taiwanese people tend to travel with family members or friends.

Alonso (2009) found that tourists in New Zealand visited wineries for wine, food, staff friendliness, knowledge, and pleasant winery surroundings, and Alant and Bruwer (2004) showed that first-time wine tourists visited to taste and enjoy different wines and to discover new flavors. Marzo-Navarro and Pedraja-Iglesias (2009) found that tourists in Spain mainly visited a wine region to participate in wine-related activities and to enjoy the culture and gastronomy. On the other hand, Bruwer (2003) found that tourists in South Africa visited wineries to taste and purchase wine as well as enjoy the so-called “winescape”.

In this study, Taiwanese tourists drank wine for several reasons: the special taste of wine, as part of social gatherings, and pairing wine with a meal. According to Chuang and Chuang (2008), social – as opposed to purely business – gatherings encourage drinking wine, which can explain why drinking during social events is so important in Asian societies. Batra (2008) found that wine tourists in Thailand mainly drank wine to experience the harmonic atmosphere of drinking wine when paired with food and the social status symbolized by wine, and for health reasons.

According to the findings in previous research, Western tourists seem eager to increase their knowledge about wine and enjoy a wine-tasting experience, but Taiwanese tourists visit wineries only for casual recreation. The wine-tourism experience includes more than visiting wineries, as it encompasses numerous wine-related activities (Batra, 2008; Charters & Ali-Knight, 2002). The lack of interest by Taiwanese wine tourists in these activities presents an opportunity for winery owners to alter their marketing strategies to entice more visitors to taste and buy their wine products.

Cultural attributes of wine tourists. The majority of the first-time vineyard visitors in this study named as their most important wine values: warm relationships with others, and fun and enjoyment in life, followed by self-fulfillment. They all consumed wine on special occasions and spent relatively little money on wine. Shor and Mansfeld (2009) reported a similar result with Israeli wine tourists. Self-fulfillment, fun and enjoyment in life, and warm relationships with others were their most important values, and half of the respondents visited a winery as a well-planned travel experience.

The hedonistic group of male wine-tourist participants in this study showed up more strongly in terms of values than those in the two other groups (conservative and reward seeking), which were dominated by women. Fraser et al. (2009) found that, of the wine tourists in New Zealand, men were generally more interested in wine compared with women, who visited wineries mainly because they enjoyed the atmosphere and the food. Cobe (2007) reported that women prefer exploring, sharing, and pairing wines, but men are more concerned with the prestige and rating of particular wines. In addition, Batra (2008) suggested that as men drank wine much more than women, this explains why women rate wine value lower than men. Atkin, Nowak, and Garcia (2007), in their study on wine consumers, found gender differences in information search procedures, leading to retail implications. They found that men preferred small wineries and were more likely to read books about wine, whereas women preferred national and international wineries and were more likely to gain information by asking staff members or reading menus and labels. Results showed that women were likely to purchase the same wine when they returned to the wineries.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

A limitation in this study is that we focused on only two wineries during the Chinese New Year holiday in Taiwan, so that the majority of our participants were students. Further studies could be undertaken during other periods, such as the summer vacation. Furthermore, the responses of the majority of the respondents who did not regularly drink wine or fruit alcohol were still counted as valid because their opinions were also important. In this regard, future researchers should compare the cultural perspectives of wine tourists who drink wine regularly with the cultural perspectives of those who do not drink wine regularly.

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Alant, K., & Bruwer, J. (2004). Wine tourism behaviour in the context of a motivational framework for wine regions and cellar doors. Journal of Wine Research, 15, 27-37. http://doi.org/fhkhwz

Alonso, A. D. (2009). Are travellers interested in wine tourism in New Zealand? International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3, 13-24. http://doi.org/djp6zv

Antonides, G., & Van Raaij, W. F. (1998). Consumer behaviour: A European perspective. New York: Wiley.

Atkin, T., Nowak, L., & Garcia, R. (2007). Women wine consumers: Information search and retailing implications. International Journal of Wine Business Research, 19, 327-339. http://doi.org/dw28d9

Batra, A. (2008). An exploratory study on specific preferences and characteristics of wine tourists. Anatolia, 19, 271-286. http://doi.org/cbt9tz

Bruwer, J. (2003). South African wine routes: Some perspectives on the wine tourism industry’s structural dimensions and wine tourism product. Tourism Management, 24, 423-435. http://doi.org/bfspsg

Bruwer, J., & Li, E. (2007). Wine-related lifestyle (WRL) market segmentation: Demographic and behavioural factors. Journal of Wine Research, 18, 19-34. http://doi.org/d3scj5

Bruwer, J., Li, E., & Reid, M. (2002). Segmentation of the Australian wine market using a wine-related lifestyle approach. Journal of Wine Research, 13, 217-242. http://doi.org/c2q5nt

Chaney, D. (2001). From ways of life to lifestyles: Rethinking culture and ideology and sensibility. In J. Lull (Ed.), Culture in the communication age (pp. 123-141). London, UK: Routledge.

Chaney, D. (2004). Fragmented culture and subcultures. In A. Bennett & K. Kahn-Harris (Eds.), After subculture: Critical studies in contemporary youth culture (pp. 36-48). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave.

Chang, C. F. (2002, June). Ganbei! Taiwan’s drinking culture. Taiwan Panorama, 2002/6, 66-71. Retrieved from http://www.taiwan-panorama.com

Charters, S., & Ali-Knight, J. (2002). Who is the wine tourist? Tourism Management, 23, 311-319. http://doi.org/d4xqhd

Chen, J. S., Huang, Y. C., & Cheng, J. S. (2009). Vacation lifestyle and travel behaviors. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 26, 494-506. http://doi.org/czqq67

Chen, T. C. (2009). Research on market segmentation for winery visitors [In Chinese]. Unpublished master’s thesis, Chaoyang University of Technology, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC.

Chen T. S., & Shen, C. C. (2005). A study on the two-stage market segmentation for agricultural tourists: A case study of Chiumalai Farm in Tainan [In Chinese]. Journal of Hospitality and Home Economics, 2, 315-334.

Chuang, Y. C., & Chuang, K. Y. (2008). Gender differences in relationships between social capital and individual smoking and drinking behavior in Taiwan. Social Science & Medicine, 67, 1321-1330. http://doi.org/b4xjq9

Cobe, P. (2007). Selling wine to women. Restaurant Business, 106, 18.

Council of Agriculture. (2012). 2012 rural wine winners. Paper presented at the Taiwan Winery Evaluation Symposium, Agriculture and Food Agency, Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan, Taiwan, ROC.

de Mooij, M. (1998). Global marketing and advertising: Understanding cultural paradoxes. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

de Mooij, M. (2004). Consumer behavior and culture: Consequences for global marketing and advertising. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Fraser, R. A., Alonso, A. D., & Cohen, D. A. (2008). Wine tourism experiences in New Zealand: An exploration of male and female winery visitors. Acta Turistica, 20, 39-65.

Galloway, G., Mitchell, R., Getz, D., Crouch, G., & Ong, B. (2008). Sensation seeking and the prediction of attitudes and behaviours of wine tourists. Tourism Management, 29, 950-966. http://doi.org/dcndgb

Getz, D., & Brown, G. (2006). Critical success factors for wine tourism regions: A demand analysis. Tourism Management, 27, 146-158. http://doi.org/dw8rvs

Gordon, M. (2000). Global culture/individual identity: Searching for home in the cultural supermarket. Oxford, UK: Routledge.

Grunert, K. G., Brunsø, K., & Bisp, S. (1997). Food-related lifestyle: Development of a cross- culturally valid instrument for market surveillance. In L. Kahl & L. Chiagouris (Eds.), Values, lifestyles, and psychographics (pp. 337-354). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Hinton, P. R., Brownlow, C., McMurray, I., & Cozens, B. (2004). SPSS explained. New York: Routledge.

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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Huei-Ju Chen, Leisure and Recreation Management Department, National Kaohsiung University of Hospitality and Tourism, No. 1 Songhe Rd., Xiaogang District, Kaohsiung 81271, Taiwan, ROC. Email: [email protected]